ТИРОНЕТ – все о щитовидной железе Для специалистов Клинические рекомендации По материалам консенсуса Европейской группы по изучению офтальмопатии Грейвса (EUGOGO)

По материалам консенсуса Европейской группы по изучению офтальмопатии Грейвса (EUGOGO)

Материал подготовлен и адаптирован О.И. Виноградской и В.В. Фадеевым



ЛИТЕРАТУРА

  1. ^ Wiersinga WM, Perros P, Kahaly GJ, et al. Clinical assessment of patients with Graves’ orbitopathy: the European Group on Garves’ Orbitopathy recommendations to generalists, specialists and clinical researchers. European Journal of Endocrinology — 2006; 155; 387–389.
  2. ^ Perros P, Baldeschi L, Boboridis K, et al. A questionnaire survey on the management of Graves’ orbitopathy in Europe. European Journal of Endocrinology — 2006; 155; 207–211.
  3. ^ Bartalena L, Pinchera A & Marcocci C. Management of Graves’ ophthalmopathy: reality and perspetives. Endocrine Reviews — 2000; 21; 168–199.
  4. ^ Perros P., Dickinson AJ. Ophthalmopathy. In Werner’s & Ingbar’s The Thyroid — A Fundamental and Clinical Text, edn 9, ch 23B pp 474–487. Eds. LE Braverman & RD Utiger. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005.
  5. ^ Weetman AP. Graves’ disease. New England Journal of Medicine — 2000; 343; 1237–1248.
  6. ^ Wiersinga WM., Prummel MF. Pathogenesis of Graves’ ophthalmopathy — current understanding. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2001; 86; 501–503.
  7. ^ Ludgate M., Baker G. Inducing Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation -2004; 27; 211–215.
  8. ^ Lazarus JH., Marino M. Orbit-thyroid relationship. In Graves’ orbitopathy: a multidisciplinary approach. Eds. WM Wiersinga & G Kahaly. Basel: Karger, 2007.
  9. ^ Orgiazzi J. Pathogenesis. In Graves’ orbitopathy: a multidisciplinary approach. Eds. WM Wiersinga & G Kahaly. Basel: Karger, 2007.
  10. ^ Bartalena L, Tanda ML, Piantanida E, Lai A., Pinchera A. Relationship between management of hyperthyroidism and course of the ophthalmopathy. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation -2004; 27; 288–294.
  11. ^ Wiersinga WM., Bartalena L. Epidemiology and prevention of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Thyroid — 2002; 12; 855–860.
  12. ^ Bartalena L, Marcocci C., Pinchera A. Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a preventable disease? European Journal of Endocrinology — 2002; 146; 457–461.
  13. ^ Hagg E., Asplund K. Is endocrine ophthalmopathy related to smoking? British Medical Journal — 1987; 295; 634–635.
  14. ^ Bartalena L, Martino E, Marcocci C, et al. More on smoking habits and Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation — 1989; 12; 733–737.
  15. ^ Shine B, Fells P, Edwards OM., Weetman AP. Association between Graves’ ophthalmopathy and smoking. Lancet — 1990; 335; 1261–1264.
  16. ^ Prummel MF., Wiersinga WM. Smoking and risk of Graves’ disease. Journal of American Medical Association — 1993; 269; 479–482.
  17. ^ Winsa B, Mandahl A., Karlsson FA. Graves’ disease, endocrine ophthalmopathy and smoking. Acta Endocinologica (Copenhagen) — 1993; 128; 156–60.
  18. ^ O’Hare JA., Georghegan M. Cigarette smoking as a promoter of Graves’ disease. European Journal of Internal Medicine — 1993; 4; 289–292.
  19. ^ Nunery WR, Martin RT, Heinz GW., Gavin TJ. The association of cigarette smoking with clinical subtypes of ophthalmic Graves’ disease. Ophthalmic Plastic Reconstructive Surgery — 1993; 9; 77–82.
  20. ^ Pfeilschifter J., Ziegler R. Smoking and endocrine ophthalmopathy: impact of smoking severity and current vs lifetime cigarette consumption. Clinical Endocrinology (Oxford) — 1996; 45; 477–481.
  21. ^ Vestergaard P. Smoking and thyroid disorders — a meta-analysis. European Journal of Endocrinology — 2002; 146; 153–161.
  22. ^ Hegedus L, Brix TH., Vestergaard P. Relationship between cigarette smoking and Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation — 2004; 27; 265–271.
  23. ^ Thornton J, Kelly SP, Harrison RA., Edwards R. Cigarette smoking and thyroid eye disease: a systematic review. Eye — 2006; 20; 1–11.
  24. ^ Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F, et al. Use of corticosteroids to prevent progression of Graves’ ophthalmopathy after radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism. New England Journal of Medicine — 1989; 321; 1349–1352.
  25. ^ Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Terring O, et al. New England Journal of Medicine — 1992; 326; 1733–1738.
  26. ^ Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F, et al. Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Graves’ ophthalmopathy New England Journal of Medicine — 1998; 338; 73–78.
  27. ^ Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Tanda ML, et al. Cigarette smoking and treatment outcomes in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Annals of Internal Medicine — 1998; 129; 632–635.
  28. ^ Eckstein A, Quadbeck B, Mueller G, et al. Impact of smoking on the response to treatment of thyroid associated ophthalmopathy. British Journal of Ophthalmology — 2004; 87; 773–776.
  29. ^ Prummel MF, Wiersinga WM, Mourits MP, et al. Amelioration of eye changes of Graves’ ophthalmopathy by achieving euthyroidism. Acta Endocrinologica (Copenaghen) — 1989; 121 (Suppl. 2); 185–189.
  30. ^ Prummel MF, Wiersinga WM, Mourits MP, et al. Effect of abnormal thyroid function on the severity of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Archives of Internal Medicine — 1990; 150; 1098–1101.
  31. ^ Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Blomgren H., Bring J. Does early administration of thyroxine reduce the development of Graves’ ophthalmopathy after radioiodine therapy? European Journal of Endocrinology — 1994; 130; 494–497.
  32. ^ Marcocci C, Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, et al. Relationship between Graves’ ophthalmopathy and type of treatment of Graves’ hyperthyroidism. Thyroid — 1992; 2; 171–178.
  33. ^ Marcocci C, Bruno-Bossio G, Manetti L, et al. The course of Graves’ ophthalmopathy is not influenced by near-total thyroidectomy: a case-control study. Clinical Endocrinology — 1999; 51; 503–506.
  34. ^ Menconi F, Marino M, Pinchera A, et al. Effects of total thyroid ablation versus near-total thyroidectomy alone on mild to moderate Graves’ orbitopathy treated with intravenous glucocorticoids. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2007; 92; 1653–1658.
  35. ^ Jarhult J, Rudberg C, Larsson E, et al. Graves’ disease with moderate-severe endocrine ophthalmopathy — long term results of a prospective, randomized study of total or subtotal thyroid resection. Thyroid — 2005; 15; 1157–1164.
  36. ^ Perros P, Kendall-Taylor P, Neoh C, et al. A prospective study of the effects of radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism in patients with minimally active Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism -2005; 90; 5321–5323.
  37. ^ Dederichs B, Dietlein M, Jenniches-Kloth B, et al. Radioiodine therapy of Graves’ hyperthyroidism in patients without pre-existing ophthalmopathy: can glucocorticoids prevent the development of new ophthalmopathy? Experimental Clinical Endocrinology & Diabetes — 2006; 114; 366–370.
  38. ^ Eckstein AE, Plicht M, Lex H, et al. Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies are independent risk factors for Graves’ ophthalmopathy and help to predict severity and outcome of the disease. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2006; 91; 3464–3470.
  39. ^ Bartalena L. Glucocorticoids for Graves’ ophthalmopathy: how and when. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2005; 90; 5497–5499.
  40. ^ Uddin JM., Davies PD. Treatment of upper eyelid retraction associated with thyroid eye disease with subconjunctival botulinum toxin injection. Ophthalmology — 2002; 109; 1183–1187.
  41. ^ Terwee CB, Gerding MN, Dekker FW, et al. Development of a disease-specific quality of life questionnaire for patients with Graves’ ophthalmopathy. British Journal of Ophthalmology — 1998; 82; 773–779.
  42. ^ Mourits MP, Koornneef L, Wiersinga WM, et al. Clinical criteria for the assessment of disease activity in Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a novel approach. British Journal of Ophthalmology — 1989; 73; 639–644.
  43. ^ Mourits MP, Prummel MF, Wiersinga WM., Koornneef L. Clinical activity score as a guide in the management of patients with Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Clinical Endocrinology (Oxford) — 1997; 47; 9–14.
  44. ^ Dickinson AJ., Perros P. Controversies in the clinical evaluation of active thyroid-associated orbitopathy: use of detailed protocol with comparative photographs for objective assessment. Clinical Endocrinology (Oxford) — 2001; 55; 283–303.
  45. ^ Rose GE. Postural visual obscurations in patients with inactive thyroid eye disease; a variant of «hydraulic» disease. Eye — 2006; 20; 1178–1185.
  46. ^ Marcocci C, Bartalena L, Tanda ML, et al. Comparison of the effectiveness and tolerability of intravenous or oral glucocorticoids associated with orbital radiotherapy in the management of severe Graves’ ophthalmopathy: results of a prospective, single-blind, randomized study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2001; 86; 3562–3567.
  47. ^ Macchia PE, Bagattini M, Lupoli G, et al. High-dose intravenous corticosteroid therapy for Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation — 2001; 24; 152 -58.
  48. ^ Kauppinen-Makelin R, Karmi A, Leinonen E, et al. High dose intravenous methylprednisolone pulse therapy versus oral prednisone for thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy. Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica — 2002; 80; 316–321.
  49. ^ Kahaly GJ, Pitz S, Hommel G., Dittmar M. Randomized, single-blind trial of intravenous versus oral steroid monotherapy in Graves’ orbitopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2005; 90; 5234–5240.
  50. ^ Ng CM, Yuen HKL, Choi KL, et al. Combined orbital irradiation and systemic steroids compared with systemic steroids alone in the management of moderate-to-severe Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a preliminary study. Hong Kong Medical Journal — 2005; 11; 322–330.
  51. ^ Hart Frantzco RH, Kendall-Taylor P, Crombie A., Perros P. Early response to intravenous glucocorticoids for severe thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy predicts treatment outcome. Journal of Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics — 2005; 21; 328–336.
  52. ^ Soares-Welch CV, Fatourechi V, Bartley GB, et al. Optic neuropathy of Graves disease: results of transantral orbital decompression and long-term follow-up in 215 patients. American Journal of Ophthalmology — 2003; 136; 433–41
  53. ^ Wakelkamp IM, Baldeschi L, Saeed P, et al. Surgical or medical decompression as a first-line treatment in Graves’ ophthalmopathy? A randomized controlled trial. Clinical Endocrinology (Oxford) — 2005; 63; 323–328.
  54. ^ Akamizu T, Kaneko H, Noguchi N, et al. Moisture chamber for management of corneal ulcer due to Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Thyroid — 2000; 10; 1123–1124.
  55. ^ Heinz C, Eckstein A, Steuhl HP., Meller D. Amniotic membrane transplantation for reconstruction of corneal ulcer in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Cornea -2004; 23; 524–526.
  56. ^ Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Chiovato L, et al. Orbital cobalt irradiation combined with systemic corticosteroids for Graves’ ophthalmopathy: comparison with systemic corticosteroids alone. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 1983; 56; 1139–1144.
  57. ^ Kahaly G, Schrezenmeir J, Krause U, et al. Ciclosporin and prednisone vs. prednisone in treatment of Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a controlled, randomized and prospective study. European Journal of Clinical Investigation — 1986; 16; 415–422.
  58. ^ Prummel MF, Mourits MP, Berghout A, et al. Prednisone and cyclosporine in the treatment of severe Graves’ ophthalmopathy. New England Journal of Medicine — 1989; 321; 1353–1359.
  59. ^ Prummel MF, Mourits MP, Blank L, et al. Randomised double-blind trial of prednisone versus radiotherapy in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Lancet — 1993; 342; 949–954.
  60. ^ Kung AW, Michon J, Tai KS, Chan FL. The effect of somatostatin versus corticosteroids in the treatment of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Thyroid — 1996; 6; 381–384.
  61. ^ Kahaly GJ, Pitz S, Muller-Forell W, Hommel G. Randomized trial of intravenous immunoglobulins versus prednisolone in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Clinical & Experimental Immunology — 1996; 106; 197–202.
  62. ^ Marcocci C, Bartalena L, Panicucci M, et al. Orbital cobalt irradiation combined with retrobulbar or systemic corticosteroids for Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a comparative study. Clinical Endocrinology (Oxford) — 1987; 27; 33–42.
  63. ^ Recommendations for the prevention and treatment of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: 2001 update. American College of Rheumatology Ad Hoc Committee on glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis. Arthritis & Rheumatology — 2001; 44; 1496–1503.
  64. ^ Compston J on behalf of Guidelines Writing Group. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis guidelines for prevention and treatment. Royal College of Physicians of London, UK 2002.
  65. ^ Wiersinga WM & Prummel MF. Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a rational approach to treatment. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2002; 13; 280–287.
  66. ^ Weissel M & Hauff W. Fatal liver failure after high-dose glucocorticoid pulse therapy in a patient with severe eye disease. Thyroid — 2000; 10; 521.
  67. ^ Marino M, Morabito E, Brunetto MR, et al. Acute and severe liver damage associated with intravenous glucocorticoid pulse therapy in patients with Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Thyroid — 2004; 14; 403–406.
  68. ^ Le Moli R, Baldeschi L, Saeed P, et al. Determinants of liver damage associated with intravenous methylprednisolone pulse therapy in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Thyroid — 2007; 17; 357–362.
  69. ^ Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Tanda ML, et al. Orbital radiotherapy for Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Thyroid — 2002; 12; 245–250.
  70. ^ Kahaly GJ, Rosler HP, Pitz S, Hommel G. Low- versus high-dose radiotherapy for Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a randomized, single blind trial. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2000; 85; 102–108.
  71. ^ Nakahara H, Noguchi S, Murakami N, et al. Graves’ ophthalmopathy: MR evaluation of 10 Gy vs. 24 Gy irradiation combined with systemic corticosteroids. Radiology — 1995; 196; 857–862.
  72. ^ Mourits MP, van Kempen-Harteveld ML, Garcia MB, et al. Radiotherapy for Graves’ orbitopathy: randomised placebo-controlled stuy. Lancet — 2000; 355; 1505–1509.
  73. ^ Prummel MF, Terwee CB, Gerding MN, et al. A randomized controlled trial of orbital radiotherapy versus sham irradiation in patients with mild Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2004; 89; 15–20.
  74. ^ Gorman CA, Garrity JA, Fatourechi V, et al. A prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of orbital radiotherapy for Graves’ orbitopathy. Ophthalmology — 2001; 108; 1523–1534.
  75. ^ Marquez SD, Lum BL, McDougall IR, et al. Long-term results of irradiation for patients with Graves’ ophthalmopathy. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology and Physics — 2001; 51; 766–774.
  76. ^ Marcocci C, Bartalena L, Rocchi R, et al. Long-term safety of orbital radiotherapy for Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2003; 88; 3561–3566.
  77. ^ Wakelkamp IM, Tan H, Saeed P, et al. Orbital irradiation for Graves’ ophthalmopathy : is it safe ? A long-term follow-up study. Ophthalmology — 2004; 111; 1557–1562.
  78. ^ Robertson DM, Buettner H, Gorman CA, et al. Retinal microvascular abnormalities in patients treated with external radiation for Graves ophthalmopathy. Archives of of Ophthalmology — 2003; 121; 652–657.
  79. ^ Wiersinga WM. Management of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Nature Clinical Practice Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2007; 3; 396–404.
  80. ^ Viebahn M, Marricks ME, Osterloh MD. Synergism between diabetic and radiation retinopathy: case report and review. British Journal of Ophthalmology — 1991; 75; 29–32.
  81. ^ Marcocci C, Bartalena L, Bogazzi F, et al. Orbital radiotheraphy combined with high-dose systemic glucocorticoids for Graves’ ophthalmopathy is more effective than orbital radiotherapy alone: results of a prospective study. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation — 1991; 14; 853–860.
  82. ^ Dickinson AJ, Vaidya B, Miller M, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of octreotide long-acting repeatable (LAR) in thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2004; 89; 5910–5915.
  83. ^ Wemeau JL, Caron P, Beckers A, et al. Octreotide (long-acting release formulation) treatment in patients with Graves’ orbitopathy: clinical results of a four-month, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2005; 90; 841–848.
  84. ^ Stan MN, Garrity JA, Bradley EA, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of long-acting release octreotide for treatment of Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2006; 91; 4817–4824.
  85. ^ Chang T-C., Liao SL. Slow-release lanreotide in Graves’ ophthalmopathy : a double-blind randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation — 2006; 29; 413–422.
  86. ^ Perros P, Weightman DR, Crombie AL, Kendall-Taylor P. Azathioprine in the treatment of thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy. Acta Endocrinologica (Copenhagen) — 1990; 122; 8–12.
  87. ^ Kahaly G, Lieb W, Muller-Forell W, et al. Ciamexone in endocrine orbitopathy. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Acta Endocrinologica (Copenhagen) — 1990; 122; 13–21.
  88. ^ Kahaly G, Pitz S, Muller-Forell W, Hommel G. Randomized trial of intravenous immunoglobulins versus prednisolone in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Clinical & Experimental Immunology — 1996; 106; 197–202
  89. ^ Antonelli A, Saracino A, Alberti B, et al. High-dose intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. Acta Endocrinologia (Copenhagen) — 1992; 126; 13–23.
  90. ^ Salvi M, Vannucchi G, Campi I, et al. Treatment of Graves’ disease and associated ophthalmopathy with the anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody rituximab: an open study. European Journal of Endocrinology — 2007; 156; 33–40.
  91. ^ Paridaens D, van den Bosch WA, van der Loos TL, et al. The effect of etanercept on Graves’ ophthalmopathy: a pilot study. Eye — 2005; 19; 1286–1289.
  92. ^ Mourits P, Koornneef L, van Mourik-Noordenbos AM, et al. Extraocular muscle surgery for Graves’ ophthalmopathy: does prior treatment influence surgical outcome? British Journal of Ophthalmology — 1990; 74; 481–483.
  93. ^ Baldeschi L, MacAndie K, Koetsier E, et al. The influence of previous orbital irradiation on the outcome of rehabilitative decompression surgery in Graves’ ophthalmopathy. American Journal of Ophthalmology — 2007, in press.
  94. ^ Baldeschi L. Decompression surgery for thyroid-related orbitopathy: state of the art and unresolved issues. In Essentials in ophthalmology: orbit and oculoplastic. Edn 9. Eds R Guthoff & J Katovitz. Berlin: Springer, in press.
  95. ^ Goldberg RA, Christenbury JD, Shorr N. Medial entropion following orbital decompression for dysthyroid ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmic Plastic Reconstructive Surgery — 1988; 4; 81–85
  96. ^ Rose GE., Lund VJ. Clinical features and treatment of late enophthalmos after orbital decompression: a condition suggesting cause for idiopathic «imploding antrum» (silent sinus syndrome). Ophthalmology — 2003; 110; 819–826.
  97. ^ McCormick CD, Bearden WH, Hunts JH, Anderson RL. Cerebral vasospasm and ischemia after orbital decompression for Graves ophthalmopathy. Ophthalmic Plastic Reconstructive Surgery — 2004; 20; 347–351.
  98. ^ Carrasco JR, Castillo I, Bolyk R, et al. Incidence of infraorbital hypesthesia and sinusitis after orbital decompression for thyroid-related orbitopathy: a comparison of surgical techniques. Ophthalmic Plastic Reconstructive Surgery — 2005; 21; 188–191.
  99. ^ Baldeschi L, Lupetti A, Vu P, et al. Reactivation of Graves’ orbitopathy after rehabilitative orbital decompression. Ophthalmology — 2007 (Epub ahead of print).
  100. ^ Baldeschi L, Wakelkamp IM, Lindeboom R, et al. Early versus late orbital decompression in Graves’ orbitopathy: a retrospective study in 125 patients. Ophthalmology — 2006; 113; 874–878.
  101. ^ Baldeschi L, MacAndie K, Hintschich C, et al. The removal of the deep lateral wall in orbital decompression: its contribution to exophthalmos reduction and influence on consecutive diplopia. American Journal of Ophthalmology — 2005; 140; 642–647.
  102. ^ Wiersinga WM, Prummel MF, Terwee CB. Effects of Graves’ ophthalmopathy on quality of life. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation — 2004; 27; 259–264.
  103. ^ Kahaly GJ, Petrak F, Hardt J, Pitz S, Egle UT. Psychosocial morbidity of Graves’ orbitopathy. Clinical Endocrinology (Oxford) — 2005; 63; 395–402.
  104. ^ Wiersinga WM. Thyroid associated ophthalmopathy: pediatric and endocrine aspects. Pediatric Endocrine Reviews — 2004; 1 (suppl 3); 513–517.
  105. ^ Krassas GE, Gogakos A. Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy in juvenile Graves’ disease — clinical, endocrine and therapeutic aspects. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2006; 19; 1193–1206.
  106. ^ Krassas GE, Segni M, Wiersinga WM. Childhood Graves’ ophthalmopathy: results of a European questionnaire study. European Journal of Endocrinology — 2005; 153; 515–520.
  107. ^ Krassas GE, Wiersinga WM. Smoking and autoimmune thyroid disease: the plot thickens. European Journal of Endocrinology — 2006; 154; 777–780.
  108. ^ Krassas GE, Perros P. Prevention of thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy in children and adults: current views and management of preventable risk factors. Pediatric Endocrinology Reviews — 2007; 4; 218–224.
  109. ^ Krassas GE. Thyroid eye disease in children and adolescents: new therapeutic approaches. Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism — 2001; 14; 97–100.